I grew up in the low desert areas of Arizona:  Douglas, Wilcox, and Mesa.   Later, living near Flagstaff, I began keeping Aloe Vera (Aloe barbadensis) in my kitchen.  In the low desert, Aloe grows in medians and desert yards; almost weed - like.  It is a succulent so it does not need much water.  Most of its moisture comes from any available humidity.  It has a cactus look without thorns, and is a welcome green in a harsh country.  A bonus is the beautiful tiny orange-yellow lily flower that fits with the easy lifestyle of a desert landscape.   Pictures and further descriptions on the internet will help you identify this plant.  If you live in a warm climate you may even have it growing close by.

I do not remember when I first knew about the positive benefits of this plant.  It seems my family used it forever.  I know this is not true, but that is how I think of it.  Treating burns and wounds using aloe has been known for centuries.  Those who are concerned about future preparedness  and ”what if “ scenarios may gain some peace of mind if they have  at least one of the Aloe vera plants growing in a pot in their kitchens.  An offshoot makes an attractive Christmas gift for friends.
Aloe has a long positive history, also some controversy, some skeptics, and many true believers in its effectiveness.  A couple of my personal experiences put me into the true believer category:

1.    When my daughter was three and her big brothers were making model airplanes, the laws against using glue that contained oil of mustard had not been passed.  If a kid built model airplanes, that is what hobby shops sold at the time.  The boys knew to be careful with it, but baby sister Mary, didn’t want to be left out of the fun.  Unknown to her brothers, she grabbed the tube of glue and started playing.  Shortly after, she was screaming.  She had a bright red burn from the glue on her leg.  I grabbed a leaf of my Aloe plant, split it to get at the gel, and swabbed it on the burn area.  Next, I put her in the car and headed for the local hospital emergency room.  Mary screamed all the way.

I entered the emergency room with the crying child and she was rushed right in for treatment.  I was standing next to the doctor in charge and stated that I had just treated her leg with an Aloe vera plant.  He turned to me in anger and said, “You did what?”  I was made to feel that I had hurt my baby girl and must be a witch of some kind.  Then, still angry, the doctor asked me to spell it so his nurse could look up the plant.  I assumed this was to see what kind of poison, if any, I had put on my child.  I spelled it and then just stood by in silence.
 The nurse was busy going through her book and the doctor still had a stern look on his face as he waited.  No one noticed (except me) that Mary was no longer crying, and she was busy looking around and playing   under the table.  I breathed a sigh of relief.   The Aloe vera worked!
Finally the doctor and nurse noticed the same thing...the silence of a once screaming child.  The doctor checked the leg and gave her some minor care.   His countenance changed now, he casually stepped toward me to say, “Where can I get one of those plants?”  By this time I was the angry person.  He never apologized and he was rude and arrogant to me earlier.  Normally I give a person one of the aloe offshoots I generally have growing attached to the base of my Aloe vera plants, but in my anger I simply answered, “In a nursery.”  Aloe plants are easily obtainable in plant nurseries across the country so I forgave myself for my own just anger.  Mary healed with no scaring.

2. I use a pressure cooker.   One time I was impatient and wanted to open the cooker before it was completely free of steam.  When I opened the lid, the hot steam hit me and I felt it burn my entire inner arm.  I grabbed some aloe leaves, put a few in the refrigerator, and used the gel of another to spread over my arm.  I knew the effects would not be immediate, but also knew that the gel in the leaves in the refrigerator would be icy cold in seconds.   After the application of the first leaf,   I took another leaf from the refrigerator, sliced it, and applied more gel.  Now   the icy Aloe vera gel had burn stopping power, and the comfort of ice.    After several applications of the icy gel, the pain subsided.  With continued icy cold aloe treatment, my burn healed with no scaring.
Over the years I found that although not an instant cure for burns, it does work, but it usually takes about twenty minutes for pain to cease or at least become bearable.  Getting to an emergency room and obtaining “instant” treatment probably takes longer than that even if you live near a hospital.  I think the time saving application of aloe, plus a trip to the hospital is the best way to handle a burn.
Typing the words “Aloe vera plant” into web browsers will supply all sorts of information. One article I saw gave some details of its characteristics.    According to an article published by the University of Maryland Medical Center,  “Aloe vera gel is comprised of 99 percent water, and 1 per cent glycoproteins and polysaccharides”  Aloe's glycoproteins reduce pain and inflammation, while its polysaccharides stimulate skin growth and repair.   The article also mentions that for these reasons, “aloe can be effectively used to treat pain, itching and swelling caused by burns, insect bites or allergic skin reactions. It can also help small wounds and burns heal faster, and it can soothe and moisturize dry, irritated skin”.

I use aloe on chapped hands and lips, rough soles of my feet, sunburn and any minor burn, scratch, or rash.  A friend of mine uses aloe as her only face moisturizer.  Her face is beautiful and youthful looking.  Modern day beauty product manufacturers create all types of beauty products using Aloe vera as the prime ingredient.    Even Cleopatra knew about using it as a beauty treatment.  
Aloe is spoken of as a medicine perhaps as early as 4000 BC, when drawings of it were found on temple walls in the tombs of the Pharaohs.  The   Egyptians called it the "Plant of Immortality" suggesting that it might have been used in the embalming process. 
Greeks carried aloe plants into battle for wound treatment.  Alexander the Great knew about the power of aloe in healing wounds and sent an army to gather plants that were growing on an island so his enemies could not get them.  Aloe is one of the most frequently prescribed medicines in old herbal books which mention aloe’s use for a variety of ailments. 
 I like to have a small bottle of straight Aloe vera gel in my travel bag   to use on insect bites or scratches.  Having the “traveling aloe bottle” is like having a bottle of inexpensive soap along.   The gel has a soapy substance called saponin in it that is capable of cleansing, and, saponins have antiseptic and antibacterial properties   as well.     I cannot imagine a better product for a first aid kit.
Aloe is mentioned in the Bible including the following:
John 19: 39-40   Nicodemus (the man who had first come to Jesus at night) likewise came, bringing a mixture of myrrh and aloes which weighed about a hundred pounds. They took Jesus’ body, and in accordance with Jewish burial custom bound it up in wrappings of cloth with perfumed oils.
Psalms 45:8-9:  You love justice and hate wickedness; therefore God, your God, has anointed you with the oil of gladness above your fellow kings.  With myrrh and aloes and cassia your robes are fragrant; from ivory palaces string music brings you joy.
Proverbs 7:17:  I have sprinkled my bed with myrrh, with aloes, and with cinnamon.
One of the best things about Aloe vera is the ease in which it grows and the fact that it thrives in benign neglect.  In warm places it will grow outside.   Even then it is still a good idea to have a pot full inside.  Direct sunlight fades the plant but it is still good to use.
Inside, the plant thrives in a coarse potting mix similar to one for cactus.  Aloe is not a cactus,    it is a member of the lily family but the cactus mix drains readily.  About the only thing that kills an Aloe plant is over-watering.  Add some Perlite or something to lighten up the mix if using a regular potting mix.    Use a shallow but wide container because the plant is not deep rooted and it also produces offsets at the base which can be easily removed and repotted. 
I have only touched on some of the benefits of Aloe.  As with all survival skills, the plant can be researched, and knowledge can be gained about its use.  I have an Aloe vera plant growing in my kitchen and I always will.    I am in my “golden years” now, and think   people concerned about the future will do the same once they know about the benefits of this plant.   Do your homework, and then get an Aloe vera plant for your kitchen.

Dear Mr Rawles,
In regard to the article by Firefighter Charles on fire protection, I imagine (and, indeed hope) that I won't be the only person who suggests a qualifier to the advice on what to do with a fire in a cooking pan.  My understanding is that one should NEVER put water on a pan which holds oil or fat, because the resulting explosive burst of steam and fat will leave anyone attempting the exercise with extensive, serious burns.

I realize that Firefighter Charles dealt with grease fires earlier in the same paragraph, but wondered if it might be helpful to make the point about fires in pans of oil/fat explicitly.

With many thanks for your helpful site and my regards, - Philip M.

Thank you Mr Rawles and Firefighter Charles. While much of the information provided by Firefighter Charles is very good basic info, I feel there are some serious and potentially deadly errors presented here. I would like to explain:

1: NEVER throw flour on a fire. You risk creating a small fuel air explosion. Think grain silo dust explosion. Flour is finely ground plant material and is combustible! If it creates a cloud through your toss or by being blow upward by the thermal plume created by the fire, it can "flash". Sugar is glucose and equally flammable. I have seen a few Pop Tarts break in toasters and really get going.
Baking soda, not baking powder [or flour] should be used. Salt is also acceptable.
Most professional chefs leave a pan cover or wet towel on the side of the grill that is large enough to cover the pan.
NEVER move a flaming pan from the stove to a sink or exterior. (Bad Chef Ramsey) If you move to quickly the contents will splash out or the flame will flare out over your hand causing you to drop it. Pouring flaming oil down the sink will damage most modern plumbing. If you start the faucet over and through the heated flaming oil (600 to 800 F) the water will "explode" into steam (212 F) and aerosol the flaming oil for the first few seconds.

NOTE: If you are using a propane turkey fryer indoors, then stop doing so! I have seen one entire house and two garages lost this way. If you have not properly measured the oil level or it is caused to boil over you just may get to restart building your structure from scratch. (Ref NFPA 10, IFSTA Life safety educator 2nd edition and NFPA Fundamentals of Firefighter skills 2nd edition)

2: Crawling low to get away from smoke is the way to go, but I got the impression that active unprotected firefighting was partially encouraged. Be advised: Smoke does kill most fire victims. It does so through three ways: carbon monoxide, cyanide and heat. Trying to crawl through a modern house fire is suicide. Construction and interior materials have changed since the 70s. Houses are now weather sealed for energy efficiency. Interior materials are now synthetic petrochemicals (20% benzene) in a solid stable state. A fire breaks down the synthetics with thousands more BTUs than old wool and wood. The smoke is not allowed to vent and is heating other materials in the structure which now begin to thermally break down, melting and vaporize.

The gasses created are too hot to breathe and will sear your eyes and lungs shut. Temperatures at 18" and higher can exceed 600 F. The most common byproducts of the incomplete burning (black smoke) are carbon monoxide (which will disorient before killing you and is the reason most die), hydrogen cyanide (which will kill you and has yet to be properly treated after smoke inhalation in the US. Europe has had it in their protocols for the last decade, they got something right!).

This all happens in less than 5 minutes from open flame. If you are upstairs where the smoke and heat will flow first, you have 90 seconds to get out.
Due to the heat and byproducts (benzene) in the super heated gases, you will have flash over soon. The temperatures will reach over 1200 F. A fully suited firefighter has less than 14 seconds to escape that atmosphere or he will cook in his suit. It is rated to protect the wearer at 5 minutes at 500 F, and the time greatly diminishes with each 100 F increase. You will not make it, and the radiant heat will bank down on anyone too close to the exterior openings. Get out and get away. (Ref NFPA Fundamentals of Firefighter Skills 2nd addition, IFSTA Firefighter 5th edition and Brannigans Building construction for the fire service)

3: Combination detectors are fine. Ionization detectors have a radioactive element with a 10 year half life. The data of manufacture or expiration should be on the unit. If not, replace it. Photo electric sensors do not expire. Firefighter Charles is right, you should have both types.

Detectors mounted on [upper walls near] ceilings must be mounted at least 4" from the ceiling but no lower than 12" and at least 12" from wall corners. If mounted on the ceiling itself, they should be at least 12" from any wall and 3' from ceiling fans or ducts. This is due to air flow disruption and smoke layering issues. (Ref NFPA 72)

4: Unless the fire is small and you have an extinguishing method on hand CALL FOR HELP FIRST! Evacuate, then fight the fire. (If SHTF [or you live in a remote area] then disregard, we probably aren't coming quick enough if at all). The leading cause of injury and fire loss in an occupied (you inside) structures is delay in fire department notification (ref FEMA and FM Global Insurance). If the fire is larger than 3'x3' it is past "incipient" stage and will rapidly spread. The rule of thumb is for every 18 degree F increase the fire will double in size or damage potential. This changes with the size and type of the fuel (your stuff) and the container (room-house) it is in. More stuff in less space = quicker hotter fire.

5: One more thing you can do to make your house safe is to keep doors closed and storage in containers. By limiting the areas heat and smoke can travel and the total surface areas that can be affected fire growth is slowed.

Once again, thanks for the info Firefigher Charles, and "Omnis Cedo Domus" my brother! (Everyone Goes Home, the national firefighter motto) - P.A.F.

Fire protection is very important for the home.  Keeping protection around your home from fire is a very important practice.  Too many homes a year are destroyed to fires.  Too many people die each year from fire related deaths (Note: Most people die from smoke inhalation not the heat of the fire).  You should learn ways on how to prevent fires and learn method on how to fight fires.  Preventing fire will lessen your chance of a fire but learning how to fight a fire will lessen the damage to your home and keep your family alive. 

     Understanding The Beast:  First, you will need to understand the element of fire.  Fire works off of three components Oxygen, Heat, and Fuel.  This is called the Fire Triangle.  Fire needs all three components to come alive.  Take one of the components out and the fire dies.  If you have a grease fire and you put baking soda, flour, or even sugar (which is even messier) you take the oxygen away by smothering it.  If you have a propane fire and you shut off the propane tank, you take the fuel away.  If leave a pot on the stove and it begins to heat up, before it can burst into flames.  You take the pot off the stove, put it in the sink and run water over it.  You took the heat away.  All three components will cause a chain reaction to ignite a fire.  Stop the chain reaction and you stop the fire.

     Understanding The Fire Ground:  To fight or escape from fire you have to understand the conditions you might find yourself in:

Smoke:  Smoke can be anywhere from a light haze to black out conditions.  In blackout conditions you are going to have to solely rely on your sense of feel.  This is why I earlier recommend that you practice with blindfolds to simulate heavy smoke conditions.  The thicker the smoke the less viable air you can breath and the less you can see.  Most people die from smoke inhalation during a fire.  Smoke brings a lot of people to panic, which in turn makes them breath faster, flooding their own lungs with smoke.  People also panic at the fact that they can’t see during a fire.  In any smoke condition stay low.  Since smoke rises, there should be less smoke at the floor.
Fire:  You’ll smell or see smoke before you see the fire most of the times.  You’ll feel the heat of fire as well before you see the fire.  Fire can move really fast therefore you have to move faster.  Oxygen helps the fire move faster.  Opening a window to let the smoke out alleviate the smoke but it will also feed the fire.  In turn making the fire move faster.  Knowing what to do during a fire is very crucial.  It’s a matter of seconds, life and death.
Heat:  Staying low can keep you alive.  By staying low you can avoid the heat as well as the smoke.  Since heat rises there should be less heat at the ground.  This is why we are taught to crawl out of a fire or smoke condition.  If you happened to get lost in the smoke, you’ll have to use the sense of feel and touch.  The hotter it gets in your home the closer to the fire you are.  Therefore go opposite the fire if you can.  
Some fire departments have a Smoke House that allows kids and adults to crawl through a simulated fire conditions (minus the heat and fire).  A fog machine produces the smoke.  The house is black out for you to have to feel your way through.  It’s a great way for people to get an understanding of what a fire condition (somewhat) can be.

     Prevention:  A very basic prevention is being careful.  By being careful you should turn off your appliances after usage, blow out candles, do not leave oven mitts near an open flame, and keep space heaters away from flammable objects.  Another basic prevention is common sense.  By using common sense I mean never put a Christmas tree next to your chimney or a space heater, don’t fall asleep while smoking a cigarette, don’t over load a power strip or use a cheap extension cord, and never pour water on a grease fire.  Now, if being careful is not your thing and you have no common sense.  Buying a smoke detector and an extinguisher is your next best bet.

     Home Smoke Detectors:  Buying a smoke detector is a very easy process.  Go to any hardware store, Target, Wal-Mart, or K-Mart and you will find a smoke detector.  All smoke detectors are pretty much the same with a few small exceptions.  Some come with strobe lights.  Some come with voice alert.  Others come in a smoke and carbon monoxide combination.  Most importantly they come in two types Optical (photoelectric) or Ionization.  Ionization detectors are made to pick up small smoke particles.  They are cheaper than the photoelectric but are also faulty.  Some are sensitive to dust and or dust build up which will more than likely trip the alarm.  Optical or Photoelectric detectors are a light sensor that senses smoke particles breaking up the beam of light inside the detector, therefore setting off the alarm.  The downside to an Optical detector is that a fast moving fire might not be picked up as fast as on a Ionization detector.  I, myself am not a big fan of the combo detectors such as the carbon monoxide/smoke detectors.  Try and get two separate detectors if you can afford it.  Now, as far as placing a detector you should place it high on a wall or on the ceiling (which I prefer).  Depending on your home size, you should have one in the basement, living room (right above the base of the stairs), hallway, and each bedroom, if possible.  If you live in an apartment you should have one in the hallway and in each bedroom.

     Extinguishers:  This is probably one of the best weapons against fires you can possibly have.  Fire extinguishers are pressurized by air or nitrogen.  The extinguishing compound can either contain water, dry chemical, dry powder, and or foam.  Fire extinguishers come in four different classes to combat four different classes of fire.  Class A fires are ordinary combustible solids.  Class B fires are flammable liquids and gases.  Class C fires are energized electrical equipment.  Class D fires are combustible metals such as titanium, magnesium, potassium, uranium, lithium, and plutonium.  Now, there is Class K fires which is cooking oil and fats but that can also fall under Class B fires. 

     Now, the most common home extinguisher is the ABC extinguisher.  This extinguisher holds dry chemical (Monoammonium phosphate), which battles three classes of fires, Class A, B, and C fires.  As far as the size of the extinguisher to get you should go with a 5 lbs. to 10 lbs. extinguisher for the home and a 2 lbs. extinguisher for the kitchen (only).  A water extinguisher is very useful as well but you have to be able to identify the class of fire.  If you use a water extinguisher on a grease fire you will spread the fire.  If you use a water extinguisher on an energized electrical fire, you’ll get electrocuted.  Also in the extremely rare case that you use a water extinguisher on a metal fire, you can cause a steam explosion, which could burn you.  Water cans (extinguisher) are also heavy.  Water cans are only good for one class of fires, Class A fires.  Don’t forget to check your fire extinguisher once a month.

     Extinguishing The Fire:  Attacking the fire with extinguisher seems easy and it can be if done correctly.  You can actually attack a fire in the wrong manner.  You can waste every drop of water or dry chemical and not even darken the fire.  To attack a fire with a water can (extinguisher), pull the pin, squeeze the lever, point the nozzle at the fire and put your index finger partial over the nozzle.  By doing so will give the water a spray effect, which in turn covers more fire.  Start at the base of the fire and sweep from side to side.  To attack a fire with dry chemical, pull the pin, squeeze the lever, and sweep side to side at the base of the fire.  If it’s a grease fire don’t spray directly at the burning grease because you might splash the grease and spread the fire.  To attack the grease fire, spray slightly over the fire so that the dry chemical blanket the burning grease.  Then come down gently onto the fire to completely knock it down.  Never use a water extinguisher on a grease fire. Also, Remember P.A.S.S. (except for flammable liquid fires):

Pull Pin
Aim at base of fire
Squeeze the lever slowly
Sweep from side to side

     Other Extinguishing Methods:  Smothering techniques are another way of putting out the fire.  Like I stated before using baking soda, flour, salt, sugar, or a pot cover on a grease fire will smother the fire.  Turing a trash can upside down when there is a fire in it, will also smother the fire.  You can also use heavy blankets to smother fire.  Dampening the blanket first will make sure that the blanket doesn’t catch fire too easily.  There are fire blankets for sale, just research for the best one for you.  Fire Blankets are also great for extinguishing a person on fire.  The fire blanket won’t melt to the skin.  Don’t forget Stop, Drop, and Roll.  It is still an effective way to extinguisher a fire on a person.  When doing this method make sure if at all possible to do it in dirt, sand, or even a puddle of water.

     Fire Escape Ladders:  Escape ladders are great to have around.  Even though they do not protect you from fire.  They will aid you in escaping a fire.  Most of these are 2 to 3 stories long but I have seen a 5-story fire escape ladder.  Escape Ladders can weigh up to 25 pounds so they’re easy to handle.  They also hold up to 1,000 pounds depending on the maker.  With escape ladders you have to practice and get use to the wobbliness of the ladder.  Escape Ladders are drop ladders that you drop from your window in case the fire blocks off your first means of egress.

     Fire Escape Hoods:  These are great to have.  They are pretty pricey but worth their weight in gold.  These hoods allow you to breath in a smoky environment and some even protect you from extreme heat.  The hoods also have multi protection use as they also protect you from other toxic gases and radiation particles.  When practicing putting this on, make sure you Do Not Activate the filter by pulling off the paper or plastic tabs that block the filter’s airway.  If you do, the filter will be no good when you really need it.  Now, having an escape hood in an average size home might not be necessary.  The time it would take for you to put it on, you can already be at a window climbing down to safety or waving for help.  Although they can come in handy searching for loved one if need be or can buy you time in searching for a way out should you get lost in your own home.  Escape hoods are good for office buildings, apartment buildings or large homes.  The escape hood works, up to 1 hour.

     Fire Escape Plan:  You should have a well thought out fire escape plan.  You should have a couple of escape route from your home or apartment.  You should have a couple of meeting points as well.  For your escape route you should make sure your family knows how to get out through all exits.  Drill your family and yourself with blindfolds on.  Have them try to find their way out.  Get them use to the fact that in a fire they won’t be able to see a thing.  In the being of that drill just make sure that they can get to an exit.  When they get better at getting to an exit, start timing them.  Make sure that everyone in your family crawl out as the heat and smoke is going to push you to the floor anyway.  Once out of the fire home or building.  Make sure everyone knows where to meet.  Whether it’s a neighbor’s home, a light pole on the corner, or a park across the street.  Make sure it’s in the immediate area of the fire home or building.  NEVER go back in for pets or personal belongings.  Pets a lot of the times make their own way out and personal belongings can be obtained again.

     Fighting The Fire:  The first thing you want to consider is the size of the fire.  If it’s too large then you want to leave and let the professionals handle.  If it’s small or a medium size then you might want to consider fighting it.  To determine the size of the fire is to know how much of the area the fire is burning.  The rate of speed the fire is moving at also will be factor on whether or not to fight the fire.  Make sure you have a way to get out before engaging the fire.  If the fire is going to cut you exit off, just get out.  Always make sure the exit is at your back.  Make sure you have the proper extinguisher or adequate water supply before fighting the fire.  If all else fails just leave and let the professionals handle.  Remember to stay low.

In the end, you should hold fire drills and have everyone in the house on the same page.  Some fire services will drill with your family, send you brochures, and send you a DVD on how to plan for fire emergencies.  You can also look on-line and watch YouTube videos on how execute a proper fire drill. 

Jim:
I am considering using Insulated Concrete Form (ICF) for building my next house/retreat back in the United States  for when I feel that it is not longer safe to live abroad. 
 
For a relatively small incremental cost in a new home (3-5%), you have disaster proof, fire resistant, fortified home. I found this brochure (in PDF) that describes some of the advantages of ICF construction.
 
Best Regards, - AmEx (American Expatriate)

In case of TEOTWAWKI, being successful in the art of camouflaging will be a serious matter. It will be necessary for many aspects of life to include; movement, reconnaissance, and ambush. Camouflaging is a multi-tiered animal, including camouflaging your skin, your clothing, your gear, and your weapon.

I spent six years in the army as an Infantryman. As a result I personally have spent 26 months of my life in Iraq, and I have been on well over 500 combat patrols: to include raids and ambushes of all kinds.

Camouflaging of your outfit or uniform begins with the construction of a ghillie suit, which is often up to a person’s own preferences; there is no wrong way as long as you stick to a few basic principles. One if that color doesn't appear in nature it had better not appear on your suit; two environments change so your suit should too, if you need to roll around in the dust to make it blend in with say a desert terrain do so, if you’re in grasslands and its springtime don't try to pretend you are a patch of dead grass. Three don’t stick to patterns, there is a reason the word wilderness includes the word wild.

The materials needed for the type of ghillie suit that I made are as follows: 

One, a basic camouflage uniform (either an old set of Army BDUs which can be purchased for around $50, and bought used for much less in many different places from surplus shops to thrift stores; patterned in woodland or desert camouflage uniform (DCU), or my personal favorite a set of olive drab mechanic coveralls for around $40 brand new (heavy duty so they last long and as they are one piece they are actually more comfortable [than a separate pants and shirt]). 

Two, burlap (you can buy it by the yard for around $5 to $7 or do as I did and use old sand bags; try to get a few different colors)
   Three mosquito netting (under $20 for or you can buy a roll of 5 ft x 50 ft from Ronco for around $45.) For grasslands I recommend 1 inch x 12-14 inch strips however the nice thing about the mosquito netting is you can cut it into larger pieces to form a more leafy pattern.

Fourth, any type of basic twine net, try to stay away from plastic or synthetics if possible (I used an old camouflage net and cut away the camouflaging portion so I was left with a basic net). I personally recommend buying camouflage netting. It can be purchased in 4ft x 8ft sections for under $20 from a variety of online retailers) because you can also make "Yeti nets" with it which I will explain later in this article. 

Fifth, for added comfort buy a few sections of felt, (when I made mine I bought a 6 ft x 12 ft section of tan felt for $27 from the Felt Store online) enough to sew pieces on the front of the uniform all of this is for added comfort.

Lastly, a few additional items needed are: a tube of Shoe Goo, a good sewing kit, cloth dyes in a variety of subdued colors is also recommended (if tan burlap is cheapest with a little experimentation it could be changed into a variety of colors and shades.) And a roll of olive drab duct tape is always handy. This is known in the U.S. Army as "100 M.P.H. tape."[JWR Adds: Fire Retardant Spray is also a must, since untreated burlap is quite flammable, especially with the edges shredded, as is typical for ghillies!]
 
When I constructed mine I started out with an olive drab pair of coveralls cut out sections of net so the entire back of the coveralls would be covered by the net, the net covered my entire back from shoulders to ankles and down my triceps to elbows.  I then secured the net by sewing it to the uniform around the edges and about every six inches I would sew the inner part of the net to the coveralls to further reinforce the netting. Step two take your burlap material and cut it into 1in x 12-14in strips starting at the bottom weave it through one section of the netting and tie it in the middle, keep stacking strips of burlap onto each other, (if you happen to have different colors make it random just stick to good earth tones) also to add to the random pattern if you opted to buy mosquito netting, cut it into 1in x 12-14 in strips, a good ratio is one strip of mosquito netting to every 25-30 strips of burlap. Unlike the burlap however take the mosquito netting and before you attach it cut irregular patterns again use nature as your model, I made mine wavy to look similar to grass or weeds.

Once you have the entire back covered in the burlap and mosquito netting, take the burlap strips and start pulling out the horizontal fibers, so essentials you have clusters of burlap string knotted together. That should take care of the back now onto the front when I constructed mine I knew I would be doing a lot of crawling around so I took portions of felt one for my chest, two for my elbows and two for my knees. For my knees I cut out the felt 12 in long x 10 in wide. I cut it 12 in long x 6 wide for my elbows.  For the chest I cut two pieces that started at my collarbones to the end of my rib cage, and placed them side by side to allow me to zip and unzip the coveralls, I then cut sections of burlap 2 in x 2 in bigger than the felt pieces so that an inch overlapped on each side of the felt. I cut a square inch out of each corner so the burlap could easily be folded over the felt. Next I used shoo goo to attach the two together and then sewed each piece in its respective spot. For the knees I put the two pieces about where you would wear knee pads and had the elbow pieces start at my elbow and follow the outside of my arm to the hem of the sleeves. The chest piece is pretty self explanatory. It adds a little padding and helps the suit last longer.
The idea behind the one I constructed was that if you were lying on your stomach the burlap mosquito netting mix should cover everything but your boots, head and hands.

Next you need to construct a sniper veil, you can purchase these but I always found a piece of gear I made or fashioned myself was always better. I used an army BDU boonie cap and a piece of camouflage netting I rigged up and refer to as a "Yeti net". (These similar in construction to the ghillie suit but instead of attaching it permanently you use a section of camouflage netting and spruce it up with strips of burlap and mosquito netting in a similar fashion as described above, but instead of stacking the strips one on top of the other you can space them out a little.) I tied the yeti net to the boonie cap using parachute cord. The idea of the sniper veil is to break up your outline and generally you want it large enough to cover you head and neck and also extend to the front and drape on top of the optic on your weapon.
 
I also constructed another Yeti net one for my feet and one for my bag, both were 4 ft x 4 ft. Now, as a quick aside, Ghillie suits are advantageous because they can cover your whole body while providing great camouflage, and unlike me where I had the burlap and mosquito netting concoction covering my back, you can make them cover your whole body and even make a hood. Just do a little measuring and cutting, I had a friend that used a hooded sweatshirt as a pattern to sew a net together and a pair of pants for patterning the leggings and attached the netting together. So before he added the burlap and mosquito netting it looked like he had a fishnet pair of pants and a fishnet hooded sweatshirt. So all he actually wore underneath was a t-shirt and pair of shorts, making excellent camouflage and it was very light and comfortable.  However the advantages of ghillie suits stops here… wearing body armor is difficult next to impossible in a ghillie and its pretty hard to access magazine pouches because if you were to wear your webbing gear it would have to be underneath or the ghillie is all for naught. As a solution to this you can make a larger yeti net to cover your back and legs you wear it almost as a cape. It looks ridiculous when you are moving but it is a good alternative to a ghillie suit if you still want easy access to gear and prefer to keep your body armor on. Yeti nets are more quickly constructed but they do have a tendency to tangle. I have done both and see advantages and disadvantages to both.

Whatever choice you make, whether to make a full ghillie or partial like I did, or a yeti net, just follow the basics, subdued colors, don’t use vegetation stick to durable materials like burlap and netting. You want to get as much coverage as possible (depending on whether you want to be able to wear your body armor or web gear) Be creative within the contexts of creating camouflage and you might surprise yourself and always field test when possible.

Next, after you have camouflaged your body you have the hand and face. Here is where camouflage face paint comes in handy. Now I know a lot of sets come with black however save that for any urban raids, where you need to just subdue your face and hands. Now to understand camouflaging, you need to understand the end goal. The human face in its natural form is very recognizable, a protruding nose, shadows formed by your eye sockets and lips naturally pursed. The idea is to make you face unrecognizable and appear more two dimensional rather than three dimensional, and also remove any shine produced by natural oils in your skin) I personally like to use either a nice light to medium brown or green.

I have a whole travel hygiene kit bag full of different colors and sticks but my personal favorites are the camouflage paint sticks, they look similar to a container of Chap Stick, but they have two sides with alternating colors, two common ones are light green/loam and black/olive drab. I personally prefer them because other than the black you can use all those colors as a base and they are about $2 per versus the $5 to $10 compacts that inevitably have colors you don’t use, and not as much paint in them. That is to say you can buy a couple compacts but I wouldn’t stock up on a ton of them unless you want them for barter/ charity. When selecting camouflage paint colors diversity is key, but also keep in mind your surroundings (you will want to stock up on extra of those particular colors), and always buy waterproof. Now I know I have touched on the use of black paint, they also sell white paint in sets, you can always use the black and the white to darken or lighten up other natural colors. As well as the black and white have a limited role in winter camouflaging.

Alright, first and foremost, you have the base layer I always applied a healthy amount of the base color on the back of one of my hands add a little spit to even it out and start applying to your face starting about half an inch into your hairline and all the way down to about an inch or two of where your shirt begins. Don’t forget the ears, work the paint into your eyebrows, inside your nose half a fingernail length for those of you who haven’t outgrown the habit, and your neck.

Once you have the base coat it’s time to start adding some other colors either in the form of stripes or blobs. I always preferred a mix of the two. Keep in mind to keep the stripes small (although tiger stripes look awesome that’s not what we are going for) And I was always taught to vary things up when it came to stripes don’t be afraid to use a mix of vertical, diagonal, and horizontal. Inconsistency is the key here. The base coat is to reduce your skins natural shine while the added stripes and blobs are to break-up the protrusions on your face. Also another goal of stripes is to try to mix the vertical and horizontal lines already on your face. For example, you wouldn’t want a stripe going horizontally across your eyes, aka "the raccoon look". Also you wouldn’t want a vertical stripe going down your nose. Field testing is a must it can help demonstrate what works and what doesn’t.

I always applied paint to the backs of my hands, even if you are going to be wearing gloves, there may be moments when you aren’t wearing them, and it’s always better to be safe than sorry. Follow the same steps for the backs of the hands obviously not as much detail is required as is for the face. And I always rubbed the remainder of paint that I would always wind up with on my fingertips into my palms not because I was necessarily trying to camouflage my palms but in an attempt to reduce the shine
 
As I mentioned earlier, I used a Yeti net for my bag that I carried on ambushes. As most of you have probably already purchased subdued colored bags, I think it goes without saying there aren’t enough camo nets in the world to camouflage a sponge bob square pants backpack or that coach purse you just had to have. I phrase I heard over and over in my career keep it simple stupid or KISS applies here, if you have to work too hard to conceal something it’s not worth it. I attached a yeti net to my bag using parachute cord, and rolled the excess up and secure it with a bungee while on the move. As far as gear I always kept it on the ground under a yeti net near me when stationary or on me if the suit I was wearing permitted or in a bag if not. But you could try to camouflage it by wrapping a little burlap around it again experiment see what you like and what you don’t like.
 
Lastly, but importantly, camouflaging your weapon. Again they have many… many kits available for purchase online but as always I preferred something fashioned by myself; many times it’s cheaper however, the reason I prefer it is you become better at something only by experimenting and experiencing it.  Even if you have a camouflage finish on your weapon the rules of camouflaging still apply you need to break up the outline of that weapon and make it unrecognizable. Also another quick aside even if you decide to stick to the original finish of your weapon in the last several years I have noticed a trend of offering different subdued colored accessories offered for many different pistols as well as most AR-15/M4 type rifles, ranging from buttstocks and pistol grips to rail covers and lasers/lights.  Research and testing is really the only way to find out what truly works for you.

I always used sections of camo netting and fashioned them similar to mini-yeti nets and attached them to the weapon with parachute cord. When attaching it always make sure you can still see through the optic or the sights and ensure the action doesn’t get tangled. (I once almost lost a squad mate due to his camo netting getting entangled in the action of his M249.) After you have sufficiently camouflaged your weapon one thing that people often forget to is take a look at their optics. A flash from an uncovered pair of binoculars or scope can give your position away to someone over a mile away. I learned three different techniques to camouflaging scopes they are: one the honeycomb, two the bird’s nest, and three the horizontal viewing slit.

First with the honeycomb [scope caps] that a lot of companies offer these as an accessory, which I think should be an immediate purchase with the optic. [JWR Adds: These channelized "Killflash" adapters are getting popular, for good reason.] However if yours gets lost or broken you can construct one using strips of the burlap fiber and small amounts of shoo goo.  It is time consuming but well worth the effort you basically create a square patch larger the end of the optic to be covered, fold down the excess and I used a piece of parachute cord and tied a square knot to attach it to the optic.

Second the birds nest, this requires a degree of patience and is a good technique to use if you happen to own an optic similar to a Trijicon ACOG, because they have about an inch lip between the edge of the scope and the objective lens. You weave a birds nest around the outer edges of the objective lens trying to keep the middle clear, a lot of experimentation is needed for this method because too little camouflaging and it is an exercise in futility and too much and you won’t be able to see.

Lastly, the horizontal viewing slit, the name pretty much says it all you take and cover all but a horizontal strip. On my ACOG I had I covered all but a one-inch gap for ambushes. Yes it reduced the amount of light but it also helped reduce the glare off the objective lens.

All the techniques I have mentioned throughout the article I have at least some if not extensive experience with, I used many of the techniques on multiple occasions obviously for desert warfare, but even as environments change techniques remain standing, just be adaptable and being willing to change. But always field test to ensure you are on the right path. Game time is too late to be changing certain strategies. Should you choose to build your own ghillie I would spend some time at home wearing it and spend some time familiarizing yourself with camoing up. Then, whenever you get a chance to spend a day in the woods, break it out. Take turns with friends trying to spot each other, you might just amaze yourself.

Recently (based on a suggestion by a SurvivalBlog reader) I began a Meetup Group for Emergency Preparedness.  One of the Meetup events that I’m soon to host is entitled “To Build a Fire”.  Hosting this Meetup which I originally conceived as simply a fire building class has forced me to think logically about tactical fire building in a WTSHTF scenario where you are forced to build a fire for survival purposes.  I’ve synthesized these ideas into this article.

By “tactical” what I mean is “low observability” because technically no true definition of tactical perfectly fits this discussion.  However people should generally understand the points I’m making.

My experience with fire building includes six years in the Boy Scouts (attaining Eagle) in addition to years of post-Scouts camping and using working fires for various reasons on my property.

Inherently a fire is not tactical; however building a fire may be a requirement when no other alternatives exist.  Thus the question is posed: How can I make a fire as tactical as possible?

People may think that in the worst of future scenarios they can simply bugout and build fires for warmth & cooking.  My hypothesis is that using a fire in such a situation is the worst thing to do because of the high likelihood of negative outcomes, such as getting killed for your supplies.

Why do we build fires?

Much of the time it’s for pleasure: Inviting friends over to chow on good grub, or just hanging out in front of a warm bonfire and having a great time.  Other times a working fire is necessary for burning dead wood on your property or for other reasons.  When camping, fires are useful for cooking and to provide a lighted, warm, and friendly environment around which campers will gather.  Not as common are survival fires for sterilizing food and water, raising one’s body temperature, drying clothing, signaling, or repelling wild animals and insects.

Tactical strategies are generally not important for these types of fires and usually not even considered by the fire builder.  This can be a huge problem in a SHTF scenario because the effects of such fires tend to be highly observable.   Easy observation by sight, sound, and smell makes the pinpointing of a fire’s location simple, both during the fire and afterwards.

• By sight: Fire, smoke, and general site destruction (broken or cut tree limbs, absence of normal levels of dead wood, footprints, trash).  Thermal imaging devices increase the chance a fire will be observed.
• By sound: Preparation activities (breaking, sawing, or chopping fuel) and popping wood while burning.
• By smell: Smoke and cooking food.

Tactical strategies are extremely important when building a fire in a SHTF or bugout scenario.  Starting a fire for any reason will attract people for miles unless extreme care is taken.  My recommendation is to not create a fire at all unless absolutely necessary for survival reasons.

Alternatives exist that must be considered prior to igniting a fire to keep your sight, sound, and smell observability to a minimum:

• Food: can be eaten cold
• Water: can be filtered or sterilized by other methods
• Hypothermia or freezing: body heat can be shared and/or shelters built.

Stoves can be used if raw food must be cooked or water boiled but only if you’ve prepared with such equipment.  (Read this as: prepare with such equipment!)

If no alternatives exist and building a fire in a SHTF world is required for warming people in critical hypothermic or freezing conditions or to remedy other survival problems, then you must: 1) Know how to build a fire (an extremely important survival skill.)  2) Control and limit the observability of your fire.

(My disclaimer) Prior to the next discussion pre-SHTF safe fire building practices must be mentioned.  These are:

1) Know your local fire ordinances. 
2) Remove combustible material from around your fire building site.  The larger the fire is the greater this requirement.  Don’t forget to remove overhanging branches.
3) Do not build a fire in windy conditions. 
4) Prepare a readily available and continuous water supply. 
5) Ensure your fire is “cold out” when you’re done with it.  After spraying plenty of water on the remnants of the fire, turning over all unburned fuel and spraying again, carefully put your hands in the wet ashes to ensure no hot coals remain.  Bonus: after rinsing the ashes off your hands you’ll notice they are nice and clean from the mild lye solution created by the water and wood ash.

My experience is that most people think they can quickly start a fire in the wild because they can light a barbecue or a fire in their fireplace.  Fire building in the wild, especially under survival conditions and with added tactical considerations, will be quite daunting.

Building a fire is fairly simple but without knowledge and practice is challenging.  In less than ideal conditions starting a fire is extremely difficult.  Watching SurvivorMan on television does not make you an expert and when a fire is needed for survival reasons it’s critical that one is made quickly. 

Three prerequisites are required for a successful fire: ignition, combustibles, and air.

Ignition: Creating the initial heat source which is then amplified during the next sequential fire building steps.  Many tools are easily available for igniting a fire, prepare your bug-out bags with several of these options and practice using them.  Examples are: Waterproof/weatherproof matches, lighters, and magnesium style striker tools (BlastMatch, etc.).  While its fun to watch Les Stroud igniting a fire using a fire bow, this takes long hours of practice, precisely the correct wood types, and a relatively long time to manufacture the tool and to produce an ember.  Use a match instead.

Combustibles: Generally described in three categories: tinder, kindling, and fuel.

• Tinder is composed of the smallest or finest flammable material.  Its purpose is to amplify the ignition source enough so that kindling can be burned.  Examples are: Pine needles, dried grass, tree or vine bark (cedar, birch, or grapevine), mouse nests, bird nests, etc.  The list is endless.

• Kindling is woody material that is the next size up from tinder, but smaller than the fuel.  Size ranges from about 1/8” to 1” in thickness.  Its purpose is to amplify the fire enough to light the fuel.

• Fuel is the material that’s added to the fire after the kindling stage.  Generally smaller sized fuel is used in the early stages of the fire but as the coal bed becomes larger the fuel can increase in size.  The fuel’s purpose is to be the main working part of the fire.  It provides the direct heat or burns down to hot coals with which to cook food, warm bodies, or for other reasons.

When building a fire you must sequentially move in order from tinder to kindling to fuel.  Skipping a step will not work, especially in wet conditions.  Combustibles must be as dry as possible for effective fire building.  Techniques exist for dealing with wet conditions, such as using a knife to expose the dry insides of the combustible material; you should familiarize yourself with these skills.  Another tip is to use hanging dead branches as they tend to be drier than fuel on the ground.  Finding sap covered tinder or kindling is a bonus.  Pine or other sap is flammable and very helpful when starting a fire. 

Air:  At first you may not think air is much of a problem because we are building a fire on Earth, not the Moon.  However, when a fire is not properly constructed, too little air will flow into the ignited fuel and the young fire will not effectively burn or will go out.  This is the last thing you want to have happen if you are attempting to build a survival fire.

Airflow is controlled by the fire lay.  A fire lay is the fire’s method of construction and an effective fire lay is critical for starting a fire.  A mature fire usually ends up as a pile of fuel with a hot coal bed, so the fire lay eventually disappears.  If a mature fire goes out, it can typically be restarted by adding fresh fuel onto the hot coals.

Too many fire lay configurations exist to review in detail (teepee, lean-to, hunter’s, log cabin, etc.)  You should research and practice using different types so you know when to build a specific one.  Fire lays can generally be categorized as “above ground” or the less common “below ground.”

Below ground fire lays are superior for controlling and limiting the observability of your survival fire.   A below ground fire lay of particular usefulness in a SHTF world is the “Dakota Fire Lay” or “Dakota Fire Pit” (DFP).

A DFP consists of a jug shaped hole dug with a wide base and narrower top.  The lower part of the hole is connected to a smaller angled air intake tunnel.  The air intake entrance is dug upwind from the main hole.  In essence it’s a small wood burning stove built into the ground.  An above ground fire lay is used to start the fire within a Dakota Fire Pit.

As a Scout I never made a DFP because they were too time consuming to build.  I made one this week and it took me 75 minutes to dig and that’s with proper hand tools.  For a young Scout that’s too long when you can use an above ground method to prepare and ignite a fire within a few minutes.

Again, not building a fire is the best way to maintain your operational security, however if a fire must be built and you have the time the DFP is excellent for these reasons:

• Minimal light and heat signature:  Most important for tactical considerations is that it produces the least amount of observable radiant light and heat because the fire is totally underground.

• Efficient burning of fuel:  Little or no smoke is produced, again reducing sight and smell observability.  The design of the DFP is such that a draft is created to supply fresh air to the fire as it burns.  This configuration allows the fuel to burn completely which produces little smoke.

• Quiet: The DFP is quieter than other fire lays because the sound of popping and cracking wood is suppressed.  When digging it I suggest using sticks or other non-metallic tools because when a metal hand tool is struck against a rock it’s quite noisy.

• Safe for windy conditions:  A low chance of the fire spreading exists because (That’s right!) it’s underground.  Furthermore this fire is easy to light and maintain in such conditions because the wind has little effect on a below ground fire.  Wind actually improves the fire by blowing through the air intake and increasing the burning efficiency of the fuel.

• Easy cooking: Lay a couple of green sticks across the top of the hole and put your pot on it, or create a green stick grill onto which meat will be laid.  All of the heat is concentrated with this fire lay instead of spreading out as with other types.  You’ll notice your food cooks more quickly than expected, a definite tactical plus.  You can also wait until the fire burns down and cook directly on the coals, or use the pit as an oven or smoker.

• Simple site restoration:  Just fill the hole with any remaining signs of your camp and fill it with the dirt that was removed.  If no chip producing saws or axes were used to prepare the fuel, then the vacated site will never be recognized for the campsite it was.

If the ground is too wet, frozen, rocky, or otherwise unsuitable for digging, or if no time is available to properly dig a DFP, quasi-underground alternatives exist which aren’t as effective, but are better than above ground fire lays.

One example is the trench fire lay which is a simple trench dug in the ground into which the fire is built.  It’s not as efficient or secure as a DFP however it achieves some of the same results.

Any fire should be kept small to minimize the output of light and heat.  Small fires also reduce the amount of fuel consumed which means less fuel collection and preparation is required, ultimately translating into minimal site destruction.  Additionally, fewer calories are used by the people maintaining the fire which means less food consumption is necessary. 

Ideally no tools should be used for preparing the fuel.  It should consist of small pieces that don’t need further cutting, again minimizing site destruction and leaving few telltale clues (wood chips, saw dust, or limbs broken or cut from trees) that you occupied the site.  You want your location to be 100% unrecognizable as a camp after you depart.  Also the sound of chopping wood with an axe can be heard for miles, and sawing is quite noticeable in quiet woods too.

To summarize:  In a SHTF world a fire will draw unwanted attention.  Before you make that fire always think of alternative methods of eating, sterilizing water, or getting warm.  If a fire must be built, keep it to the smallest size possible to meet your needs.  Use cover (dense woods, low spots, cliffs or rocky areas, even buildings) to help hide your fire, and seriously consider digging a Dakota Fire Pit to maintain your operational security.  This type of fire lay minimizes observation by sight, sound, and smell thus reducing the chance of attracting attention.

Lastly: Practice this essential skill now!  Don’t assume you can build a fire in the wild. Identify and use native materials around your bugout sites and travel routes.  Practice in both dry and wet conditions and in different seasons.  Prepare your bugout bags with some of today’s commonly available fire starting tools (magnesium type fire igniters, paraffin & fuel type fire starters, etc.).  They increase your chances to successfully and quickly build a fire; however don’t think you can build a fire just because you pack them.

Okay, I admit it, I’m a Prepper.  The first time I read the Boy Scout Motto “Be Prepared”, I was hooked.  "Be prepared for what?" someone once asked Baden-Powell, the founder of Scouting, "Why, for any old thing." said Baden-Powell.  My real awakening with the Boy Scout Handbook was my first introduction to fire.  Learning to make a basic campfire, a cook fire, bonfire and camp-fire television were the first tastes of what would prepare me for the future. I camped, earned merit badges and worked my way to First Class and Patrol leader all the while putting an end to cords and cords of wood with gusto.  Being a Scout taught me at a young age to think about prepping as a natural part of my life.  When I read Jack London’s epic story “To Build A Fire”, I understood that being unprepared can be the harshest schoolmaster.  So I began my life in the workaday world planning on being the one who was prepared.
Fast forward to ‘married with children’ and I can hear my patient, psych-majored, wife say, “prepping meets a basic need”.  In my mind, prepping meant to know ‘everything’ about being prepared.  It was important to understand not just how to prep, but what to prep for and to understand the root causes for why one had to prep.  Several books I read provided the best explanation of what was coming: 1) The Fourth Turning by Strauss and Howe, 2) Conquer the Crash by Robert Prechter, and 3) The Black Swan by Nassim Nicholas Taleb.   All three helped me understand what I was preparing for and instilled a real sense of urgency.  Knowing the why, I also pursued the how by reading: 1) Boy Scouts Handbook (First Edition, 1911), 2) The Encyclopedia of Country Living by Carla Emery, and 3) How to Survive the End of the World As We Know It, by James Wesley, Rawles, the best among many others.

After years of reading books, articles and blogs, it slowly dawned on me that I would never know ‘everything’ about prepping, but at least I could know ‘everything’ about a couple of things.  My work consisted of designing and building process equipment, which requires large vessels called retorts that are used to heat mercury vapor, hydrocarbons and air to over 1000F.  The retorts are kept under a mild vacuum, to prevent the conditions for combustion and fire from ever happening. After more than ten years of designing and building retorts, I became interested in biomass gasifiers, which are in many ways, similar to retorts.  My prepping had led me to look at alternative fuels for our family’s two diesel fueled sedans.  Although already easy on fuel, I was interested in what alternatives there were to using straight diesel fuel.  Peanut oil, soybean oil, palm oil, coconut oil, used fryer oil, used motor oil, LP gas, compressed natural gas and producer gas are all mentioned as alternatives to diesel fuel.  Wait a second!  What is that last one - producer gas? It is fairly common to convert a diesel to run on LP and compressed natural gas, but what was producer gas?  As it turns out, producer gas is the result of burning biomass (basically wood) with insufficient air. In fact about ¼ of the normal amount of air necessary to completely burn wood will yield a smoky, but burnable producer gas consisting mostly of Carbon Monoxide (CO), Hydrogen (H2), Nitrogen (N2) and smoke (unburned hydrocarbons).  Producer gas from a gasifier must have the smoke reformed into producer gas before it can be piped directly into the intake of a diesel engine. This could reduce, but not completely replace the diesel fuel that the engine uses.  I was intrigued by the possibility that we could use biomass to power our diesels.  After studying biomass gasification for about two years, we built our first test gasifier.  It was a batch-type, stratified, downdraft gasifier, which we built with insulated, stainless steel chimney sections and small axial blower. It was a very simple, yet excellent way to learn more about biomass gasification.  With this test unit we gasified every type of biomass we could get our hands on – wood chips, wood pellets, sawdust, cocoa shells, wood shavings, paper, and dried distillers grains (don’t ask).  In addition to producer gas, the gasifier also yields a charcoal, also known as biochar, as a valuable byproduct.

Needless to say I was excited, but then my wife says I’m always excited about something or other, having been born fully caffeinated.  Now I could make producer gas and biochar simply and on demand.  With some development time, stainless steel fabrication, and a digital control system - I could see this becoming an entire new business.  I made a plan for our prototype and my faithful sidekick, Jake, drew up good looking solid model drawings, which he then built.  To our surprise, the unit worked and generated producer gas that we flared off in an impressive blue flame about two feet long.  To our amazement, we also got it to power a 5 kW gasoline generator which we converted to run on producer gas using the tri-fuel generator kit available from US Carburetion.  So I showed my wife the unit, showed her how it operated, the big beautiful blue flame, ran the generator and told her my idea of how this was the basis for a whole new business.  Her immediate response, “That’s great dear – but don’t quit your day job.” Well I haven’t given up mercury retorts, but I could tell by her enthusiastic response that she was behind me all the way. 

Soon after, young Jake and I were discussing gasifying the various types of biomass, whether hardwood, softwood, nutshells, paper, and grains, and how the process seemed to be straightforward. Our conversation got around to size and again how simple the process was to gasify average size wood chips, wood pellets and other “average” size biomass, just as we could easily gasify small size biomass like fine sawdust.  I mentioned to Jake the importance of testing the other extreme, to which he immediately shot back, “then gasify logs”.  Ouch! Now that smarted.  Wood blocks, can do; small branches, check; short 2x2 cutoffs, no problem; but logs, full size logs?  That little challenge from Jake, faithful apprentice and right-hand man, forced me to think about the real reason we were doing what we were doing.  We really needed to be prepared for the time when the gasoline, diesel fuel, LP and natural gas were gone.  The time when the natural gas pipelines were empty, when we had used the last of our LP tanks, and when our diesel fuel and gasoline tanks were empty.  What happens then?  How would that happen? Whether war, EMP, political upheaval, famine or plague – it matters little.  Because when you’re cold and it’s dark, no one is interested in motives or underlying causes, you just need heat and light. 

All that would be left as a renewable resource would be our firewood, but how can we effectively use firewood?  Normally, the traditional campfire can provide heat to warm you up, cook your food, dry your clothes, signal your location, and provide you with adequate light to see and read.  However, under abnormal situations involving the high stress of no shelter, extreme cold, deep snow, high winds and driving rain; building a fire can be a lifesaving, but tricky proposition especially for the inexperienced and unprepared.  This is the part where having read Jack London’s short story, “To Build a Fire” was crucial to my thought process.  If you never read it - now is a good time.   Just what does it take to properly build a fire in extreme conditions?  It requires: first, shelter from wind and cold surfaces like snow; second, a good quantity dry wood; third, some kindling consisting of dried wood cut in thin sections or slivers; fourth, some flammable tinder, which can catch and hold the smallest flame or spark; fifth, all-weather waterproof matches or flint and steel; sixth, knowing the process of assembling the wood, kindling and tinder that will enable you to start and maintain the fire; and seventh, practice.   The best campfire resource on the web that I’ve seen is The Campfire Dude who provides you with solid information matched with years of practical experience.  Making a campfire is not that easy, in fact it requires skill under good circumstances, and can be near impossible in high stress situations.  Add to that the fact that a campfire is absolutely the least efficient means to burn wood to generate warmth and you may well be permanently disappointed. 

Jake and I had learned that it was easy to gasify almost any biomass using our downdraft gasifier, as long as it had been nicely chipped, chopped, pelleted, trimmed, dried and graded for uniformity.  However to gasify logs required a completely different approach, we found a clue at the 2010 U.S. Biochar Initiative Conference at Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa. There we saw several versions of inverted downdraft stoves and were intrigued by one large unit in particular.  One big problem was that it required electric power and a blower to operate - we were not interested, as our unit had to operate without power.  Instead we developed an idea, which used the updraft heat from the fire to drive the necessary airflow to feed the fire in place of the electric blower. We designed the layout for our basic prototype from our initial calculations, which required that we place correctly sized openings for primary and secondary air and chimney. Proper location, sizing and spacing all were important, in that they determined, how fast the wood burned, how hot the fire got and how completely it burned the wood fuel.  We built our first unit and were again amazed that it worked at all.  Our testing used metal containers, which ranged from 5 gallon metal pails holding 12 inch long split wood to 30 gallon cans where we tested full sized logs. 

We discovered in our first test that:
1) The burn was extremely hot, enough so to warp the metal container,
2) The wood burned with no visible smoke except on startup,
3) 20 pounds of wood burned down to less than 5# of biochar, and
4) The burn lasted more than two and one-half hours. 

Thus was born our "Commence Fire!" Emergency Fire and Heat unit, which includes:  one 5 gallon shrink-wrapped container, chimney, 20# of hardwood pellets, tinder/fire starter, stormproof matches, metal cups, water pouches, single servings of tea and a reflective Mylar blanket. 

To operate the Commence Fire!, first strip off the shrink wrapping, remove the shrink tube from inside the chimney, firmly pull the chimney completely up until it locks in place, charge the unit with the tinder/firestarter mix by pushing it completely down the chimney, remove a stormproof match from its package, light it and immediately drop it down chimney. 

Within five minutes of opening the shrink wrap, your fire should be well established. Next fill a cup with water and in a few more minutes you will have boiling water ready for hot tea.  Immediately search for about 100 pieces of small diameter logs and branches that are dead but still off the ground, and which you are able to break into 12” lengths using your hands or feet.  Lean the accumulated wood, even if wet, on the Commence Fire! unit to get it dry – as you will be using this wood as a continuing source of fire.  It is also recommended that you stack rocks up around the outside of the container to be heated and later brought into your tent or sleeping bag for long lasting warmth. Proper positioning of the Mylar blanket enables you to shield yourself from wind and rain, while reflecting heat from the backside of the unit.

You probably know that you can remain conscious for only three minutes without air. You may not know that you are likely to remain conscious for only three hours without adequate shelter and heat in extreme cold and wet conditions.  To reverse the effects of exposure and hypothermia you need the means to provide heat and shelter to reduce exposure and the means of increasing your core temperature by drinking warm liquids. With the Commence Fire! you have a unit with everything you need to start and maintain a fire in any weather and to provide shelter and warm liquids fast, especially when it is pre-positioned and ready in your BOV, retreat, cabin, boat, or cache.

Indoors, most folks believe that their fireplaces will be their backup heat. But the harsh reality is that a fireplace can be only slightly more efficient than a campfire in extracting heat from wood.

JWR Adds: The author makes an interesting new stove and tinder kit dubbed Commence Fire! It will soon be reviewed in SurvivalBlog by Pat Cascio. It is notable that the kit is specially dry-packaged for use in an emergency, so the contents stay dry, even if its shipping box gets soaking wet. Here is a demonstration of a Commence Fire! kit. 

Disclaimer (per FTC File No. P034520): I accept cash-paid advertising. To the best of my knowledge, as of the date of this posting, none of the companies mentioned in this article have solicited me or paid me to write any reviews or endorsements, nor have they provided me any free or reduced-price gear in exchange for any reviews or endorsements. I've been told that they will be providing Pat with one of their kits for test and evaluation, but nothing else. I am not a stock holder in any company.

James:
That was an excellent article by A. Arizonan! As a former newspaper deliverer (rural route in the American Redoubt), I would like to add that there are benefits to delivering or subscribing to newspapers.

As a deliverer who serviced home customers and coin-op boxes, I could amass "extra" or "unsold" paper to the tune of about 300 to 500 pounds a month. To this day I still have about 2000 pounds in storage. I'd have more but I can't properly store any more.

The added benefit of my former route was that I got to meet a lot of people and explore places near me that I wouldn't otherwise go. This has proved useful in learning more about where I live and who lives in it.

I also found some of my customers would return the rubber bands and plastic sleeves so I could reuse them (as they cost me money to use). I asked one customer if they would return their papers as well so I could "recycle" them and they were more than happy to. (As if I needed more of what I couldn't save, but you see my point).

After giving the route to a friend and fellow prepper, my friend has told me that he now has two customers who want unsold or "used" paper! He, like myself, struggles with storage space (he has about three times what I have in paper) so he is happy to not go out of his way to the recycling place but rather leave the "extra" with someone who has a use for it.
If you would like a massive amount of newsprint in a short amount of time, you can either get a route or simply talk to your delivery person. - T.M.

Dear Mr. Rawles,
One quick point with regard to the statement: "Some frown on cellulose as an insulator because of two of its other main properties, namely flammability and absorbency (ask anyone who has had a roof leak into an attic with cellulose fill)."  Commercially available cellulose insulation is treated with borate, and is actually safer than fiberglass in nearly every regard including fire safety. Regards, Peter in Maryland

JWR:
A. Arizonan mentioned: "Cooking. My grandparents used to have a grill that utilized only newspaper to cook on. Quite a while back I even saw these advertised on late night TV."

Newspapers may contain toxic chemicals and these chemicals might end up in your food. Typically paper is treated with toxic beaching agents and these toxins remain in paper. Newspaper also utilize recycled paper which may also have become contaminated other with toxins from their previous use. - An Anonymous Reader

JWR Adds: This warning is particularly true of slick color-printed inserts. These should all be shunted off for recycling, as their risks outweigh their benefits in almost every potential application.

I believe in having all the “big” things, to prepare for the possible breakdown of civil society.   I have a large home outside of a small mid-west town, and expect 12 people to arrive to hunker down, if things do fall apart.  I need to be able to feed and supply of them, perhaps for years.

So I have 1,200 gallons of Kerosene.  This is intended for heating the home for 3 winters, and I have 3 Kerosene heaters to do the job.  The Kerosene is stored in in 3 large 330 gallon plastic totes, half buried in my back yard, hidden by a wood pile, as well as four 55 gallon drums buried under my deck. I have a hand-crank pump to get fuel from either type of container.  I have treated it all with PRI-D, and I expect it to last for decades.  I have stored more PRI-D just in case.

I have 12,000+ pounds of food on site.  Along with lots of canned goods and dried meals, I have barrels of white rice, rye, Triticale, 5,000 pounds of hard red wheat, pinto beans, and 250 pounds of popcorn.  I have another 4,000 pounds of wheat in a barrels in a second location.

I bought the rice, beans and popcorn at Restaurant Depot in 50# bags, and the rest as “seed” from a local grain dealer, for around $14 per 60# bushel.  It's mostly stored in 55 gallon drums, with liners, and dry ice to drive out the oxygen.  Some is also in 6 gallon buckets. 

I have 300 gallons of water.  100 gallons of this is instantly drinkable, in 1/2-liter bottles.  I also have 100 gallons in two water heaters, and 110 gallons in two 55 gallon drums in my basement.  I could filter and/or disinfect this water if I needed to drink it, but it's intended for washing and toilet flushing.  I also have 1,000 coffee filters, and various-sized of commercial filters, to handle drinking water for the foreseeable future.  I have a 165 gallon tank collecting rain water from my downspouts as well, for gardening.  I bought that for $20 off Craig's List.

I have 36,000 rounds of ammo and eight guns.  I try to double up on calibers, so I have two rifles that use .223, two hand guns that use .40 S&W, and a .22 rifle and .22 pistol.  Much of the ammo is stored in sealed 4-gallon buckets with desiccants, but I always keep about 500 rounds in magazines ready to go.

I have bags of silver, mostly in junk pre-1965 coins, as well as gold in 1 oz coins.  I don't know if this will be needed for actual spending during a breakdown, but it should transport a chuck of wealth thru a hyperinflation.  Once there is a new currency, I can exchange the silver a little at a time to buy items I need. 

I also have Canadian dollars, which I think will do better than US currency at holding it's value.  And I have it in a Canadian bank, and I renewed my passport, in case I need to bug out for real.  I'm just a few hours from the border.

But I don't just want to survive if TSHTF.  I want to thrive.  So over the past few years I have gathered lots of other items that I don't want to be without, when there is no store to run to.  Once you have the big things, be sure to look for these “little things”, to make life easier. 

I have way too many of most of these items for our own use, unless things stay broken down forever, but I like them for trade items as well.  Barter may become very important.

I bought small 400 bars of soap.  These are individually wrapped hotel-size bars.  I paid $17 on eBay, or 4 cents each.  I want to be clean post-apocalypse, and these should trade well.  To help conserve water, I also bought a bucket of 500 Clorox disinfecting wipes.  Then I added 40 tooth brushes, at 5 for $1.  Dental hygiene will be important, and they should be trade well too.

I worry about lighting, especially in the winter, so I bought 3 gross (432) votive candles from TheCandleDepot.com, for 30 cents each.  They burn 15 hours.  I also bought sixå of the 120 hour Nu-wick candles on eBay for about $10 each.  They cost more per hour of light than the votive candles, but you can put 3 wicks in them, and cook over them if needed.  So combined, I have about 7,200 hours of candle light.  I think the small 15 hour candles will be good trading items as well.

I bought 200 Fish hooks for $1 at a flea market.  Others will need them.

I bought 12 rolls of Vietnam-era trip wire, 160 feet each, on eBay, and 1,000 feet of 6# fishing line.  I want to have lots of trip wires and booby traps to protect the homestead.  I also bought 50 old-fashioned mouse traps, 25 cents each, to use with the trip wires.  (You can attach the trip wire to the “cheese spot” and rig a shotgun shell primer under the spring arm, and make a nifty trap or alarm. I put aside 100 shotgun shell primers for this too.)

I bought 100 tubes of Super Glue on eBay, for about $20.  Good for trading, good for quick small repairs, and also good for treating minor cuts.  In a pinch you can glue the cut shut.  Nice pocket size item for trading.

I bought 4 gallons of Barricade Fire Blocking Gel for about $250.  You can but buy it on eBay.  That's a lot of money, but my house backs up to a woods.  If that woods starts on fire, I can quickly coat my roof and deck with this stuff, and it simply will not burn down.  Very important if there's no fire department available because TSHTF.

I bought three Water dispensing Fire Extinguishers via eBay, from a guy who salvages old buildings.  Just $15 each.  They hold 2.5 gallons of water, and you pump them up with a bike pump for pressure.  You wouldn't believe how far they throw a powerful stream of water!  They are like water cannons.   I could use them with a mixture of Barricade Gel to coat my roof will standing on the ground, if needed.  Otherwise, I have handy fire extinguishers that I can refill with water again and again.

I bought 1,200 doses of Antibiotics, from various Pet Med places on line, and Amazon.  I'm convinced they are the same as people meds.  I did my research, and settled on 200 doses of Cephalexin, 200 doses of Ciprofloxacin, 100 Metronidazole, 200 Doxycycline, 300 Amoxicillin, and 200 Ampicillin. 

I have them in the refrigerator until TSHTF, where they should stay near full potency for a decade.  After the electricity fails, they should still last for many years, and only slowly loose their punch.  After a decade, I may need to take double the dosage for the same effect, so I have stocked a good supply.  I hope to have a doctor to diagnose any problems, but in an emergency, I have some medical books, and may have to roll the dice in the face of a serious infection.

To help prevent illness, I also bought 100 of the N95 masks, and 200 pairs of rubber gloves.  (Don't ask me why, but I also bought 300 unopened, empty insulin syringes, on Craig's List for $20.)  I also bought four boxes of 100 count butterfly bandages, as well as many boxes of band aids, and 30 rolls of wrapping bandages. A primitive lifestyle can lead to lots of cuts and bumps, and I want to be prepared. 

I have all the standard over-the-counter stuff, purchased as Sam's Club.  This included many bottles of Imodium, Benadryl, Acetaminophen, Ibuprofen, Pepto-Bismol and Robitussin.  I also bought a gallon of Chlorhexidine for washing wounds, and Silver Sulfadiazine and Ichthammol, based on articles I've read on treating injuries.  I also tucked away 4 quarts of Hydrogen Peroxide and 4 quarts of rubbing alcohol.

I've also stocked up on bottles of vitamins.  If TSHTF, nutrition will suffer.  So I have 50 big bottles of Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Acidophilus, and a good multiple vitamin.  This should handle my crew for years, and also allow some trading of bottles.

Having fire will always be important, so I bought 4,600 Strike Anywhere matches, in 32-match boxes.  These individual boxes should make great trading items, so I bought a gross of them.  I also bought more than 50 lighters, and spare fluid.

I am about to have installed a solar panel system and windmill to power the whole retreat, but I did buy 100 NiMH AA and AAA Batteries, and a small solar recharger.  All my little flashlights and tools use these, so I wanted a bunch.  There may even be a business opportunity, where you recharge batteries for people, and swap them charged ones for dead ones, as needed.

I hate bugs, so I bought 200 bottles of Mosquito spray!  Just 17 cents each from a guy who had overstocked.  Not aerosol cans, but the pump kinds, so they'll never go flat.  I did the research, and the active ingredients seem to have a long shelf life.  Farming would be unpleasant without bug spray, as would summer nighttime patrolling, and the bottles should also command a great deal in trade.  And when they finally ban DEET, I'll be all set.

I should get more, but I do have 10 bottles of sunscreen.

I'm obsessed with home security, so I bought 600 feet of razor wire (20 rolls of 30 ft each) and 10,000 feet of barbed wire.  (Remember to get the special gloves for handling the razor wire!)  I know wire won't keep people out if it's undefended, but we plan on it slowing the bad guys down long enough to shoot 'em.  Or just discourage them, so they move on to easier targets.  There are some good free PDFs on the net describing how to layout a good Soviet-style tangle foot obstacle.  Print one out and save it.

I may want to fortify defensive posts, and observations posts, so I have 500 sandbags.  Get the clear plastic self-sealing bags, from Home Depot, for about 35 cents each in boxes of 50.   They store/stack well, and self-sealing plastic bags have lots of uses besides home defense. (Such as human waste disposal.)

I expect we'll need to build stuff after TSHTF.  The lumberyard is unlikely to be open if things really fall apart.  So I bought about 10,000 nails and screws.  I bought dozens of trays of them at an area flea market, for about $50.  

The attic above my garage was not floored when I bought my home.  I put in a pull-down stairway, and “floored” the attic with loose 8-foot 2X4s.  I put about 100+ of them up there, not nailed down. [JWR Adds: That approach is not recommended in earthquake country.] So now it's a great place for me to store stuff like my barbed wire spools.  If and when I do need the wood for building, I can slowly un-floor my garage attic and have 100+ 2X4s for construction.  Until then, they make a fine, inexpensive floor.

I have 720 packets of various vegetable seeds.  I found a seed company distributor online, and ordered one of their vegetable variety display racks, at around 10 cent per packet.  These are the packs that sell for 59 cents. 

They are hybrid seeds, so the next-generation seeds collected from their veggies won't always reproduce true.  But I look at it this way – they are bred to produce bountiful first generation crops, unlike heirloom seeds, so my early crops after TSHTF will be reliable and big.  And I have so many packs, I won't need to save more seeds for decades.  Like all seeds, they should store well in my cool, dry basement, and the $70 they cost me wouldn't have bought me all that many heirloom seeds.  I expect the packets will make great trading items too.

I have 50 red laser pointers with white LED lights included.  I buy these on eBay for under $1 each, batteries and shipping included.    I think the little white lights are handy for in your pocket or hanging on a nail.  And we will use the red laser lights, in the hands of some of the women-folk, to make any raiders think we have even more guns aimed at them than we do.  (I also want to rig up a sort of hand-held “laser light gun” with dozens of lasers, which can be used to blind siege folks.  People are very afraid of looking into one of those lasers, and being blinded, so they should be intimidating!)

I worry about a large group rushing the retreat, in greater numbers than we can shoot quickly.  Or at night or as a surprise attack using a distraction.  If a group crashes through multiple doors and windows at once, we could be screwed.  So I bought a 150 ft long heavy fishing net, 12 ft wide, on eBay, for $100.

I cut the big net into various sizes for hanging over all the doors and ground-floor windows.  These individual nets can be hung quickly with the hooks I have, and should secure all the entries long enough for us to defend them.  Even if you shoot my front door of its hinges, it's just going to hang there in place, held up by the heavy netting inside.  Then I'm going to shoot you through it.

I bought 7 pounds of calcium hypochlorite (pool shock) for less than $20 from InyoPools.com.  Each pound will make enough chlorine bleach to disinfect 12,000 gallons of water.  I intend to make bottles of bleach in my 1/2-liter water bottles, and sell them as a business when TSHTF.  Each little bottle will itself disinfect 12 gallons of water for someone.  I'll make some money, and save some lives at the same time.

I have stored 72 gallons of treated gasoline in twelve 6-gallon cans.  I empty one into my car each month, and refill it, to keep the stock of gas fresh.  I use the mid-grade without ethanol, in case I want to use it in small engines. 

I also bought 1 gallon of PRI-G, to rejuvenate 2,000 gallons in the future.  A few years after TSHTF, there will likely be lots of old “worthless” gasoline, that can be completely reconstituted if you have PRI-G set aside.  It costs about $85 a gallon on line, but I think it's worth it--from www.Batterystuff.com.  Five years after a collapse, I still want to have a chainsaw!  (I bought several extra chains for the saw as well.  And 2 back-up chain saws, tucked away.)

Because I worry about bullets flying in through my walls, and I also worry about inflation, I have slowly accumulated 1 million pennies (400 boxes, $25 each).  Each box already has about $40 in copper (pre-1981 pennies make up about 30% of each box), so I'm ahead $15 the day I “buy” them.  I don't sort out the good pennies. 

I have the unopened boxes stacked along the outside walls of the upstairs bedrooms.  I guarantee no rifle bullet is getting through the siding, the wall boards, and the boxes of pennies.  If we never collapse, I have a great inflation hedge in the pre-1981 copper pennies.  If we have deflation, my coins will increase in buying power.  And in a hyperinflation, if we get a new currency, the coins may be accepted as part of the new money, and avoid the inflation entirely.

Since they don't make Sears catalogs any more, I have stocked up 200+ rolls of toilet paper.  I keep adding to the stash.  It takes up some space, but I don't want to think about the end of the world without toilet paper.  Not with 14 people living in my home if things fall apart!  I also bought one of those handy 5-gallon bucket toilet seat tops, just in case.

I don't expect your average thugs to have tear gas, but some left-over police state types may have some.  So I bought 10 Israeli M15 Gas Masks and 20 spare 40mm filters on eBay.  I can also use them if the woods behind my house is on fire, and I'm busy spraying Barricade Gel on my roof while the smoke surrounds me.

I also bought five canisters of Clear Out tear gas from one of your sponsors, KeepShooting.com.  $17 each.  (Remember to use the SurvivalBlog discount code "sb"!)  I figure I can roll a can down the stairs from my second floor if intruders do get in, and our gas masks will protect us from the effects, and allow us to fight while the tear gas gives us the edge.

I also bought a roll of 1,000 feet of 550 paracord for $36, from another of your sponsors CampingSurvival.com.  That stuff is good for so many things.  I added an 4-wheel block & tackle, so with the paracord I can lift some very heavy items.  I've practiced with it, and it's fun to lift 100 pounds with one hand.  Don't forget a few hundred cable ties as well.  Very handy.

Speaking of lifting things by hand, buy gloves when you find them inexpensively.  I also bought the expensive studded gloves for handling razor wire, and some “welding glove” for high heat, and some rubber coated gloves, but mostly you want a box full of more modest gloves.  Simple cloth hand-covers,  for doing regular outdoor tasks, will really save on the wear and tear, as well as precious water for hand-scrubbing.  At flea markets, I often see them for $1 a pair, so I have stocked up.  They should trade well too.  (If you find a couple nicer, leather gloves, stash those away as well.)

I continue to read survival blogs every day, and I am always looking for new items that will be both handy, and good for trading.  I usually buy them on eBay.  I also find the big outdoor flea markets offer a large variety of useful items.  And I watch Craig's List for things I haven't thought of.  I also love the Deal of the Day sites.  Each day, I stop by TodaysDOD.com, for a summary of all the deal site offers, and I often find bargains on stuff I think I can use.

Start a list of things you'd like to have on the shelf.  Add to it every time you read something interesting on the web.  Don't rush out and buy them all at once, but check the items off as you come across them at a bargain price.  In a surprisingly short time, you will find you have stocked a lot of handy items for use, and for trading.  Good luck.

INTRODUCTION
I began work in Toronto on August 1, 2003.  The lights went out three weeks later.  The entire Northeast was dark for several days.

The company had provided us with three months of free housing.  By my standards it was quite posh ¾ pool privileges, chandeliers, weekly maid service. 

But we knew nobody, had little food in the cupboard, and no local currency.  (Then again the cash registers didn’t work anyway.)  When the sun went down it got dark and stayed dark.  We had no light of any kind.  Granted, the two huge candlesticks on the mantle were a blessing, though some candles for them would have been nice.

Afterwards, my wife confessed how close she had been to begging:  “Let’s go home.  I’m scared.  I don’t care about the job.  I don’t care about the money.  Let’s get the hell out of here.” 

Fear of the dark is both primitive and powerful.

I later retired and began work on a book entitled:  No Lights?  No Batteries?  No Problem.  A Handbook of Non-Electric Lighting.  After three years of research and hundreds of “science experiments,” I submitted a book proposal to a publisher.

They kept my chapters three months and sent me a very nice rejection letter.  It began to dawn on me (at age 71) that there were not enough months left in my life to locate a publisher.  No doubt I’ll self-publish electronically at some point but in the meantime I’d like to share some of my findings.  I wish I’d known this stuff myself in 2003.

SAFETY
Everything that burns consumes oxygen.  So be sure to crack a window and provide ventilation. 

Also, everything that burns gives off carbon monoxide: your gas range, your KeroSun heater with catalytic converter, your gas clothes dryer, your boudoir incense, your wood stove, your kerosene lamp, your fireplace, the candles on your birthday cake.

As a check to see that it’s working, the directions for my carbon monoxide detector suggest bringing a stick of burning incense close to the detector.  Wow!  The detector screams!  A very impressive demo!

VEGETABLE OIL:  THE STRING LAMP
Vegetable oil lamps are less expensive than candles to burn.  One tablespoon of vegetable oil will produce a candle-sized flame for two hours.  Cooking oil has been burned in lamps since Biblical times.       

You can use a tuna fish can to hold the oil but a clear glass container allows more light to escape.  It should be Pyrex; a wine glass is the perfect shape but will probably break (trust me on this).  You can buy small Pyrex custard dishes at the Salvation Army store for 50¢ each.  They have brand names like Glasbake and Fire-King.

Soak a length of cotton string in the oil and let it dangle over the edge of the bowl.  That’s your wick.  Light the wick with a match.  The flame burns right at the lip of the bowl.

Do not use synthetic material for a wick (polyester, nylon, etc.).  Oil is drawn to the flame by capillary action.  Synthetics melt in the heat of the flame and seal off the capillary action.

The best wick material I’ve found (for heavy, viscous vegetable oil) is a strand from a cotton-string floor mop.  Actually, a whole strand is too much.  Just one of the four plies within the strand will do the job.

String mop-heads can be purchased at the Dollar Store.  For a buck you’ll have a lifetime supply of wicks.  An edge seam from your handkerchief will also work.  Ditto for a strip of your flannel pajamas or flannel shirt or denim from your jeans.  Just nothing synthetic.

You can dangle several wicks over the side of the bowl and light all of them at the same time.  That’s a nice arrangement because, when one of the wicks builds up a big carbon goober on the end, it can be cleaned off by the light of the still-burning wicks.

The string lamp is very safe because vegetable oil is fiendishly difficult to ignite.  If you spill vegetable oil, you’ll create a mess but no fire hazard.  In fact, a string lamp is best extinguished by pushing the burning wick right into the oil.  The flame will go out instantly.  (If you merely blow out the flame, the wick will glow and smolder and stink.)   

TIP:  Put a saucer under your string lamp.  It will drip. 

TIP:  Use the least expensive vegetable oil available.  You’re not going to eat it; you’re going to burn it. So don't buy olive oil for this purpose.  

TIP:  The generous use of mirrors will enhance your light output.   

VEGETABLE OIL:  A SIMPLE LANTERN
The terms “lamp” and “lantern” are almost interchangeable although a lamp is generally used inside whereas a lantern is used outside.  A lantern shields the flame from wind and rain.

A crude but serviceable lantern can be made by pouring a quarter-inch of vegetable oil in the bottom of Pyrex measuring cup or a pot from your Mr. Coffee.  (A cup or jar made from ordinary glass will break for sure using this design, no “maybe” about it.) 

Wad up a 2" x 2" square of paper, light the paper with a match, and drop the burning clump into the oil.  Voila!  A lantern.  The flame is down inside the container, shielded from the wind.  The paper serves as a wick.  And a wide range of paper can be used ¾ paper toweling, newspaper, bond paper, paper bag.

The bottom becomes very hot.  You’ll need a trivet under it.  In the case of a measuring cup, the handle becomes very hot.  You will need a potholder or gloves to carry it.  You cannot regulate the flame size so the lantern will smoke, making it suitable for outdoors use only.  After half an hour the glass will become smoked up. 

On the plus side, it will light your way to the privy and back at midnight. And, like the string lamp, should you spill this lantern, the vegetable oil will create a mess but the fire hazard is very small.

CANDLE FLASHLIGHT
This idea came from a booklet entitled Light by Dawn Russell. 

You’ll need:
(1) A candle (i.e. a taper, not a tea candle).
(2) A 3-pound coffee can (well . . . today it’s 2½ lbs.)  And make it a metal can, if you please.  Not plastic and not paper sprayed with an aluminum coating.
(3) A wire coat hanger (for a handle).

We’ll operate the flashlight with the can on its side, not eye-to-the-sky.   What served as the can’s bottom when it held coffee becomes the back wall of the flashlight.     

In use, the candle is vertical while the can is horizontal.  The top of the candle sticks up through (what has become) the floor of the flashlight.  The flame is at the top of the candle and inside the can.  The candle’s bottom end protrudes down through the floor and hangs under the flashlight.  Hence you can’t set the flashlight down; it must be carried or hung on a peg. 

NOTE:  In case you can’t visualize it from my description, the following link shows a picture of the candle flashlight as well as the string lamp and the vegetable oil lantern:  http://mumblingsfromthechimneycorner.blogspot.com/

To build the flashlight, first remove the top of the coffee can (and the coffee, too, may I add).  Then cut an X in the can wall, midway between the two ends.  Each arm of the X should be an inch long.  Push a candle partway through the X and into the can.  The points of the X become spurs holding the candle in place. 

To cut the X, first punch a hole through the can wall with a nail and hammer.  Then cut the metal with a utility knife.  (Cans aren’t very thick these days.)  Use a sawing motion.  Some strength is required.

A piece of wire coat hanger forms a handle.  Punch two holes in the top of the flashlight (the “top” being the roof over the flame).  One of the holes is at the rear of the flashlight; the other in the front. 

Push the wire into one of the holes (from the outside) and, with pliers, crimp the end of the wire inside the flashlight to form a foot that will not pull back through the hole.  Bend the wire as necessary and repeat the process on the second hole.

A 2½ lb. coffee can is 6" in diameter.  I allow 4" of headspace between the top of the candle and the flashlight’s ceiling.  It works well.

KEROSENE LAMPS
There is not much to be said about [traditional wick] kerosene lamps (the $6 variety from Dollar General).  They are simple, reliable, and reasonably safe.  And smelly.  They give light equivalent to a 7½-watt nightlight.  Ditto for Dietz-type barn lanterns.  If you want more light than that (ignoring antiques such as Rayos), you’ll have to enter the world of pressure lanterns.

There’s one exception, the Kosmos.  It’s made in Europe, burns kerosene, and outputs light in the 15-watt range.  But it costs $100.  Before you buy, may I suggest a cost-benefit comparison to a propane pressure lamp...

PROPANE LAMPS
Lamps that run on small cylinders of propane represent one type of pressure lantern.  The cylinders are pre-filled with fuel in contrast to liquid-fuel lanterns that are messy to fill. 

A single-mantle propane lamp (Century brand) is $20 at Wal-Mart.  It will produce light equivalent to a 40-watt light bulb.  One cylinder of fuel ($4) will last 12 hours.  That’s a run rate of 33¢ an hour which is a fairly steep.  But because no filling is required (and thus no spills) and because there is no smell while burning, propane lamps have largely replaced liquid-fuel lanterns within the camping community. 

Note that the cylinders used in camping lanterns, and the skinnier cylinders used for Bernz-O-Matic soldering torches, and the 20 lb. cylinders used on barbeque grills, and the 200 lb. cylinder behind the house for the kitchen stove, all contain propane.  And it’s all the same stuff, C3H8.  You can buy adaptors to hook up your little camping lantern to a bigger tank.

UNDERSTANDING WHITE GAS & COLEMAN FUEL & GASOLINE
Liquid-fuel lanterns are less expensive to operate than propane.  Unfortunately, pressure lamps that run on white gas belong to granddad’s era and not many people today understand the technology.  A little bit of homework, though, will help ensure your family’s safety.  So let’s have at it.

Oil refining is a two-stage affair.  First, distillation breaks crude oil into five major fractions:  refinery gases, gasoline, kerosene, diesel oil, and residues.

After fractional distillation comes cracking.  The world’s thirst for gasoline is bigger than fractional distillation can satisfy.  Cracking breaks down heavy oil into lighter products.

White gas is (and was) pure gasoline with no additives.  It is clear as water and 50 octane.  The Model “T” Ford, with its 4.5:1 compression ratio, ran fine on white gas.  So did Coleman lanterns.

Better auto performance required higher compression engines.  Higher compression required higher-octane gas.  Tetra-ethyl lead was added to white gas to increase its octane rating.  A bit of red dye was also added so that consumers didn’t accidentally pump the old-fashioned 50-octane stuff, now called white, into their cars. 

White gas at the pump became hard to find but Coleman lanterns still needed it.  Coleman began selling white gas branded as “Coleman fuel.”

Leaded gas is no more.  It poisoned people and was phased out 1975-1995.  But “unleaded” does not mean “no additives.”  Unleaded means different additives.  No additives would put you back to 50 octane.

COLEMAN DUAL FUEL LANTERNS
Today, Coleman sells “Dual Fuel” lanterns that are billed as running on either Coleman fuel or unleaded automobile gas. 

I was surprised to discover that my new Coleman Dual Fuel 285 produced light equivalent to a 150-watt light bulb on Coleman fuel but only equivalent to 100 watts on automobile gas. 

Would auto gas plug the lantern’s generator (as some claimed)?  I decided to find out.

Day 1.  The 285 started out (on auto gas) at 100 watts.  I kept it pumped up hard.  Eight hours later it had faded to 40 watts.  At nine hours it was almost empty.

Day 2.  It started out at 100 watts.  Six hours later it was 40 watts.  I shut it down at nine hours.

Day 3.  It started out at 100 watts.  Three hours later it was 40 watts.  I shut it down at nine hours.

Day 4.  It started out at 40 watts.  Total hours at 100 watts (actually, 40 watts or more) were seventeen.

Day 5.  I switched back to white gas.  Light output was 75 watts, half of what it had been prior to running automobile gas.  Auto gas had clogged the lantern’s generator.  A new generator was $11.49 plus postage:  www.coleman.com/coleman/parts/parts_lantern.asp

Aside.  The term generator might sound complicated but a “steam jenny” was a generator.  Jenny was slang for generator.  A steam jenny generated steam.  A teakettle is a steam jenny.

And the generator for a Coleman lantern is little more than a length of brass tubing.  Liquid fuel enters one end.  A check valve stops it from reversing direction.  Heat is applied to the outside of the tube.  The liquid inside the tube turns to a gas.  Gas (in the “solid-liquid-gas” sense of things) has been generated from a liquid.

Question.  Will older Coleman lanterns, engineered for white gas, run on unleaded automobile gas?  Yes.  Safely?  Yes.  Will automobile gas slowly clog the lantern’s generator?  Yes.  Did I personally test it?  Yes.  Why didn’t they advertise the old lanterns as “dual-fuel”? 

Why?  Because the auto gas of that era contained lead.  Not good for baby’s little brain.

ORPHANS
An “orphan” is a lamp for which you cannot find spare parts.  An otherwise perfect lamp without the necessary wick or mantle or pump leather is effectively junk.  And when, exactly, is that critical part going to fail?  When the water’s five feet high and risin’.  It’s a law of nature.

[With the exception of Diesel fuel,] kerosene is the least expensive liquid fuel ($3.75 a gallon versus $10.50 for Coleman fuel).  If you want a pressure lantern that runs on kero, your choices are a used Coleman 237, a used Coleman 639, a new Coleman 214, or a new Coleman 639C.  You can find these lanterns on eBay and spare parts at Coleman.  Everything else in the Coleman kerosene lineup is an orphan.

(Petromax is a non-Coleman lantern that burns kerosene and for which spare parts are available.)

Older Colemans that run on white gas and for which spare parts are readily available include the 220, the 228, and the 200A.  Other older Colemans are orphans.

Other older brands (J.C. Higgins and Ted Williams from Sears; Hawthorne and Western Field from Wards; Thermos; KampLite; Diamond; etc., etc., etc.) are orphans. 

Even new lanterns can be orphans.  Today, NorthStar is Coleman’s top-of-the-line lantern but requires a unique pleated, tubular mantle.  No other lantern has it or can use it ¾ domestic or foreign, new, used, or antique.  I own several lanterns but, because of its unique orphan mantle, not a NorthStar.

ARE MANTLES RADIOACTIVE?
This is a hot-button topic.

Pressure lanterns require mantles.  Mantles are made of cloth coated with a rare earth that glows in the heat of the flame and produces more light than the flame itself.

Thorium was the rare earth used in lamp mantles from the 1890s to the 1990s.  Thorium, however, is slightly radioactive.  Thorium has been largely replaced with yttrium, another rare earth that is not radioactive.  The new yttrium mantles are not as bright as the old thorium mantles. 

So how radioactive is radioactive?

A “Roentgen equivalent man” (abbreviated rem) is a measure of radiation.  A millirem (abbreviated mrem) = 1/1000 rem.  Background radiation is about one mrem per day in most parts of the world.

One dental X-ray is equivalent to 0.5 mrem.  One mammogram is equivalent to 300 mrem.

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission estimates that “avid campers” (making 26 two-day camping trips per year, using Coleman-type lanterns with thorium mantles) receive 0.05 to 6 mrem per year.

Let’s express the foregoing in more familiar units, Dollars: Background radiation is $1 per day.  A dental X-ray is 50¢.  A mammogram is $300.  An “avid camper” would receive between 5¢ and $6 per year from thorium mantles.

MORE ABOUT MANTLES
Today’s Coleman mantles are the #21 and the #11.  They replaced the 21A Silk-Lite and the #1111 respectively (which were the old thorium mantles). 

The #21 mantle is used on Coleman’s new Dual Fuel lanterns as well as Coleman’s older gas models (220, 228, 200A) as well the Coleman 214 (kerosene).  The #11 mantles are used on Coleman’s larger kerosene lanterns (237, 639, 639C).

Personally, I use the #21 mantle on my Petromax 150CP (i.e. 150 candlepower) and the #11 mantle on my 500CP Petromax.  Petromax is a brand of lantern to be discussed next. 

I’ve given up on Petromax-brand mantles because they are too fragile.  With all the finesse I can muster, I usually break them when starting the lantern.  At $2 apiece, it’s an expensive game.  Fortunately, however, Coleman mantles work fine on a Petromax lantern.  As a consequence, I use only Coleman mantles on my Petromaxes.

PETROMAX
I used to have a friend at work who pulled into the parking lot each day in his clanking Volkswagen diesel.  He would get out, shaking his head.  “When you go to the dealer, they brag about German engineering.  They neglect to mention that it’s built in Mexico.”

Petromax lanterns are like that. 

The Petromax was a German, WWI-era lantern.  Its patents have long since expired so it is freely copied by everyone.  The Petromax trademark is another story.  The original trademark lapsed and was reregistered by other sellers.  In the USA, BriteLyt in Florida currently owns it.  Other countries, other owners.

In the USA, Coleman is the big name.  But worldwide, many more Petromax lanterns exist than Coleman.  Petromax’ brothers, sisters, cousins, and clones include BriteLyt, Butterfly, Anchor, Sea Anchor, Tower, Santrax, Egret, Solex (Italy), Aida, Geniol, Hipolito (Portugal), Primus, Optimus (Sweden), Radius (Sweden), Hasag (Switzerland), Buflam-Petroflam (England), Big Wheel, Light, Red Heart, Silverray, Crown (Iraq), Kohinoor (India), Wenzel (Sam’s Club), Prabhat (India), and Col-Max (USA).  Col-Max?  Yes, just before WWII Coleman made a Petromax clone for export, intended to compete directly with Petromax itself.  

All of which testifies to the excellence of the original Petromax design.

Many of these brands are no longer manufactured (although most appear on eBay from time to time).  All of the new ones (of whatever trademark including Petromax itself) are made in the Far East and any given factory produces several different brands.  Unfortunately, it’s nearly universal that the tooling is worn, threads are rounded and don’t hold, holes don’t line up, pumps don’t pump, and prickers don’t prick.  I feel certain that few if any would meet the old-time Petromax specs.

Advertising hype notwithstanding, if you Google for BriteLyt or Butterfly or Sea Anchor you will discover a whole new world of bitching.  The best advice I can give is to buy a Petromax only where you can return it!  You may have to go through several lanterns before you find a good one.

Why bother?  Because Petromax lanterns will burn diesel fuel with today’s yttrium mantles.  Coleman lanterns won’t. 

In 2006, a contributor to The International Guild of Lamp Researchers said, “the Petromax can be used with diesel - at least for five or six hours (or so, depending on the quality of the fuel). After that time you will most probably find the generator clogged with a coal-like substance . . .:  (ref. question #3644)

Sorry, but that statement is an example of armchair science.  I ran my 500CP Petromax for 50 consecutive hours on diesel.  The generator (Preston loop) was clear before, during, and after the test, ready for another 50 hours. 

The Petromax is a kerosene lantern.  There’s a running war between The International Guild of Lamp Researchers and BriteLyt on the safety of burning gasoline in a BriteLyt.  BriteLyt says you can.  The Guild says you can’t.

There are reported cases of Petromax lanterns “exploding” when run on gasoline.  Neal McRae best covers the design issues.

I have to side with The Guild on this one because, in addition to design issues, there’s the poor workmanship so widespread in today’s Petromax lanterns. 

For example, I own a BriteLyt that will not turn off when run on gasoline.  I returned this lantern when it was brand new to BriteLyt in Florida because of the incredible quantity of gunk in the fuel tank.  They sent it back to me a month later, all better.  

Now, with the control valve in the OFF position, the lantern continues to burn.  It will not shut completely off.  (To my mind, this is a factory workmanship issue more than a Petromax design issue.)

The only way to turn the lantern off is to crack the thumb screw on the filler cap and release pressure . . . thereby releasing flammable gasoline vapor mere inches away from a burning mantle.  Not safe!  (That practice may be acceptable with kerosene ¾ the Coleman 241, for example, a kerosene lantern, was designed that way ¾ but it is decidedly unsafe with gasoline.)

So . . .  Can you burn gasoline in a Petromax and get away with it?  Sure.  Can you pump gasoline while smoking a cigarette and get away with it?  Sure.  Now riddle me this:  Is it a smart thing to do? 

Conclusion
This article is only the tip of the iceberg.  We haven’t touched on mineral spirits or burning fluid or animal fat as fuel.  Or Rayos or Duplexes or Aladdins.  Or carbide miner’s lamps or candle-making or lantern repairs or a host of other topics.  But I hope it gives you some light and I hope it helps keep you safe.

Disclaimers
In the interest of full disclosure, I do not own any stock in any company mentioned in this article.  Nor do I own stock in any competitor of any company mentioned in this article. JWR Adds: Here is my own disclaimer (per FTC File No. P034520): I accept cash-paid advertising. To the best of my knowledge, as of the date of this posting, none of my advertisers that sell the products mentioned in this article have solicited me or paid me to write any reviews or endorsements, nor have they provided me any free or reduced-price gear in exchange for any reviews or endorsements. I am not a stock holder in any company. I do, however, benefit from sales through the SurvivalBlog Amazon Store. If you click on one of our Amazon links and then "click through" to order ANY product from Amazon.com (not just the ones listed in our catalog), then we will earn a modest sales commission.